The fourth chapter of the history of quantum physics

Chapter 4 deep Baiyun

I

It should be said that, after the introduction of the new theory of atomic structure, it was not very popular with physicists. This theory, in the eyes of some people, has the arrogant intention to overturn the Maxwell system, itself is a great rebellion. Sir Riley (one of the discoverers of the Ruili-kins line we mentioned earlier) is not very interested in this, J. j. thomson, a mentor at Cambridge, declined to comment. Others who are less ambitious are much more straightforward. For example, a physicist declared in class: "if these are to be explained using quantum mechanics, I would rather not explain them ." Others claim that if the quantum model is real, they will leave the physics field. Even open-minded people, such as Einstein and Bonn, initially felt that it was too reluctant to fully accept this theory.

However, the power of quantum is beyond anyone's imagination. The victory was so fast and fast that I was almost at a loss. First of all, Boer's derivation fully conforms to the hydrogen atom line described by the barrier formula, and from the formula of W2-W1 = h v, we can calculate the expression of v, then, the theoretical value of the r constant is calculated by comparing it with the original formula V = R (1/2 ^ 2-1/N ^ 2. In fact, the predictions of the bord theory are only 1‰ different from the experimental values, which undoubtedly gives his theory a solid foundation.

Furthermore, the boder model predicted the existence of some new spectral lines, which were soon confirmed by experimental physicists. In the so-called pickeringline series debate, borer won a decisive victory with strong evidence. His atomic system accurately illustrates the spectrum of some helium ions, and the accuracy is amazing compared to the old equation. The work on X-ray in Henry Mosley (the young genius we mentioned earlier, unfortunately the one who died on the battlefield) further confirms the correctness of the atomic kernel model. It is now known that the chemical nature of an atom depends on its nuclear power load, rather than the traditionally considered atomic weight. The electronic shell layer model based on the Boolean theory is also developed step by step. There are only a few small difficulties to solve. For example, we found that the spectrum of hydrogen atoms is not a line, but can be split into many lines. These effects have become more odd and obvious with the involvement of the electromagnetic field (people use the so-called "Stark Effect" and "Selman effect" to describe these phenomena ). However, the borer system quickly gave a strong counterattack, under the conditions that the allies of Einstein's theory of relativity and that the electrons had more degrees of freedom (quantum numbers, BOL and some other scientists, such as somasafei (. sommerfeld) proves that all these phenomena can be smoothly tolerated within the bord quantum system. Although the brutal world war has exceeded, it does not block the great progress of science in that period.

Every day, new reports and lab evidence fly like snowflakes to the desk of borl. Almost every report further confirms the correctness of the Borna quantum model. Of course, along with these reports, congratulations from all walks of life, social invitations, and various University appointments are also included. Borer has become the leader in atomic physics. Out of his sense of responsibility to his motherland, he refused the job he introduced to him in Manchester. Although financially or academically speaking, it is undoubtedly a better choice. Borl is now a professor at the University of Copenhagen and has decided to build a dedicated study for further research on theoretical physics. This institute, as we will see in the future, will become an eye-catching pearl in Europe, and its light will attract the best young people in Europe to gather here, concurrency emits more brilliant thoughts.

Here, let's take a look at some of the basic features of the Boolean model. It is basically a continuation of the lutherford planetary model, but in the boder model, a series of quantization conditions are introduced, so that this system has a distinctive quantization characteristic.

First, we assume that electrons are only in some "specific" energy states when operating around the nucleus. These energy states are not consecutive and are called fixed states. You can have E1 and E2, but you cannot take any value between E1 and E2. As we have already described, electrons can only be in one fixed state, and there is no buffer zone between two fixed States. There is an electronic restricted area, and electrons cannot appear there.

However, boder allows electrons to be switched or transitioned between different energy states. From the E2 state with high energy to the E1 state, the energy of the E2-E1 is emitted. The energy is released in the form of radiation. According to our basic formula, we know that the radiation frequency is V, which makes the E2-E1 = H v. In turn, when an electron absorbs energy, it can also climb from a low-energy state to a high-energy state. The relationship still conforms to our formula. We must note that this kind of energy transition is a quantum behavior. If the electron transitions from E2 to E1, this does not mean that, in this process, electrons go through any state between E2 and E1. If you are still confused, it means that the ghost of continuity is still hovering in your mind. In fact, quantum is like a superb magician. It appears on the other side of the stage with a smile and a hat waving at one end. At any time, it does not go through the central part of the stage!

Every possible energy level represents an electronic operating orbit, which is like a satellite 500 km away from the ground and a satellite 800 km away from the ground representing different potential energy. When the electron does not emit or absorb energy, it moves steadily in one orbit. When it absorbs a certain amount of energy, it disappears from the original orbit and mysteriously appears on a higher energy orbit far away from the core. In turn, when it desperately falls toward the core, it emits the energy it has searched on the high-energy orbit.

People soon discovered that the chemical nature of an atom mainly depends on the number of electrons in its outermost layer, and thus shows regular periodicity. However, people once wondered why some of its electrons can occupy the outer electronic orbit for a long time for many electronic elements, instead, it will not lose energy to the low-level orbit close to the nucleus. This question was answered by the young bubble in 1925: he found that no two electrons can enjoy the same state, while one track can tolerate different states, the number is limited, that is, a track has a certain capacity. When an electron fills a orbit, other electrons cannot join the orbit.

An atom is like a dormitory. Each room has a four-digit house number. The base floor has only two rooms, 1001 and 1002 respectively. On the second floor, there are eight rooms with the house number 2001,2002, 2101,2102, 2111,2112, 2121, and 2122 respectively. The higher the building, the more rooms it has. The grumpy administrator bubble likes posted a notice at the gate announcing that no two e-tenants can stay in the same house. As a result, the electronics rushed into this building, and the first two occupied the two low-price and beautiful rooms on the ground floor. The later arrived because the ground floor was full, and they had to leave for the second place, start filling in the room on the second floor. When the second floor is full, it's another turn to the third and fourth floors ...... Until the sixth floor, the seventh floor, and the eighth floor where the rent is outrageous. Unfortunately, although the electronics living in the heights are inadequate, there is no way, because the downstairs are full of people and there is no way to move. They call the arrogant bubble rule "incompatible principle ".

However, this measure can indeed help people better understand some of the basic code of conduct of "Chemical Society. For example, e-companies who like to join groups always try to fill every room on the first floor with tenants. We imagine a "Sodium Building". On the third floor of the building, only one solitary tenant lives in room 3001. On the third floor of the adjacent "Chlorine building", only one vacant room is occupied (3122 ). Out of the excitement of the electronics, the hacker of the sodium building decided to move to the chlorine building to fill the blank room, and he was warmly welcomed by the tenants there. This event also contributed to the friendship between the two buildings and formed a "salt community ". In some high-rise buildings, because there are too many empty rooms, there is no way to find enough people to fill the first floor, so even if only one wing is filled, the electronics are satisfied.

All of these are visualization and general statements. The actual situation is much more complicated. For example, the rooms on each floor are divided into several levels based on different facilities. The higher the price, the more expensive it is not a general principle. For example, a presidential suite on the sixth floor is likely to be much more expensive than a normal one on the seventh floor. However, this is not a problem. The key lies in the fact that the electronic Orbital Model of boder is very convincing to explain the nature and behavior of atoms. Its predictions and experimental results are basically in line with each other. In less than two years, the borer theory won brilliant victories, and physicists around the world began to accept the borer Model. Even our stubborn faction, the plantain who refused to acknowledge the practical significance of quantum, began to review its original great discoveries.

The achievements of borl's theory are enormous and deeply rooted in the hearts of the people. For this reason, he himself won the Nobel Prize in 1922. However, this still cannot solve the profound conflict between it and the old system. Maxwell's equation, regardless of whether the Boer orbit is successful or not, it still has to say that an electron is moving around the nucleus and it will surely release electromagnetic radiation. This is also a deep sense of helplessness. He does not have the ability to overturn the entire classic electromagnetic system. In a popular saying, "What is the strength of the feudal forces ". As a compromise, boder turned to try to reconcile his atomic system with the Mai's theory and establish a connection between the two theories. He tried to prove to the world that both systems are correct, but they can only be established within their respective scopes. As our eyes gradually expand from the atomic scope to the common world, the quantum effect gradually disappears, and the classic electromagnetic theory can replace the H constant to become the dominant power of the world. In this process, both systems have a fixed State at any time. This is the so-called "corresponding principle" he published in 1918 ".

The corresponding principle has its own rich meanings, and it is still of reference significance to us today. However, there is no denying that this "ambiguous" relationship with the classic system is a fatal weakness of the borer theory. He guided an incomplete revolution. Although it appeared as a revolutionary, it ultimately relied on the support of traditional forces. Borl's quantum can only rely on the power of the classic system, and its self-consciousness is still in deep sleep without waking up. Of course, even so, its achievements have amazed the world, but it cannot avoid its upcoming future, dragging its long tail light to the other side of the horizon, it becomes a transient meteor.

Of course, such a theory of great significance is so short that we can only explain one thing: the progress of science in those days is not what we can imagine. It was a golden age of theoretical physics that could never be solved. Now, looking back, there is only the breeze of haoyue, along with the great east of the river.

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Gossip after dinner: atoms and Galaxy

Lutherford's model was called a "planetary model" or "Solar System Model" when it was born ". This is of course a visual name, but it is undeniable that there are indeed many similarities between the extremely small system of atoms and the extremely large system of the solar system. Both have a core, which occupies a negligible volume (relative to the entire system), but focuses more than 99% of the quality and momentum. People can't help but think about it. Isn't the atom itself a "small universe "? Or, our universe is composed of thousands of "Small universe", which in turn forms a larger "Universe" with thousands of individual universe "? This reminds us of William blke's famous little poem:

To see a world in a grain of sand. * see the world from a grain of sand
And a heaven in a wild flower * knows the sky from a flower
Hold infinity in the palm of your hand * unlimited grasp with one hand
And eternity in an hour * use a flash to stay forever

Can we see the world from a grain of sand? The analogy between atoms and the solar system cannot give us too much inspiration, because the actual distance between planets is much farther than that between electrons (in proportion, of course ). However, scientists recently suggested that the universe indeed has an astonishing repetitive structure on different scales. For example, the analogy between atoms and the Milky Way, and between atoms and neutron stars, they all show very similar aspects, such as radius, cycle, and vibration. If you scale up an atom by 10 ^ 17 times, the nature of it is similar to that of a white dwarf. If you zoom in 10 ^ 30 times, it is believed that it is equivalent to a galaxy. Of course, this is not to say that it is completely equal. I mean, if the atomic system is scaled up by 10 ^ 30 times, its various mechanics and Structural Constants are very close to the observed Milky Way. It is also suggested that atoms should be compared to the solar system in high energy situations. That is to say, the atom must be in a very high excited state (about several hundred of the main quantum number), and at that time its various structures were quite close to our solar system.

This idea is that the universe shows similar structures at various levels, known as the fractal universe model. In its view, even an atom also contains some information about the whole universe, which is a "holographic embryo" of the universe ". The so-called "fragment" is an interesting topic in chaos dynamics. It shows us how complex structures are repeated on different layers. It is unknown whether the evolution of the universe follows a certain chaotic dynamics principle. The so-called "fragtal universe" is just a statement of the family. This is a funny story.

II

Once upon a time, the rise of BOL's theory brought brilliant light to the entire dark physical sky, so that people thought they could see the beautiful scenery of the happy world. Unfortunately, this fake bubble-type boom has not been sustained much. Although the old physical world has become full of scars under all kinds of shocks, the magnificent palace of the boder atomic model has not been able to withstand the more violent revolutionary impact, and has been burned in chaos, we will only leave some broken tiles for our support today. The first rainstorm has passed, and the Earth is cool and the sky is still thick. The Fallen sun is like blood, throwing a Afterglow in the sky, turning the ruins into a red one, setting off a more heavy atmosphere, indicating the arrival of a bigger storm.

The decline of the bord Dynasty seemed doomed on the day it was born. Although this theory borrowed the infinite power of the new quantum, its foundation is still built on the weak old foundation. The idea of quantization is just a mercenary in the borer theory. It is more like being forcibly attached than the starting point and basis of the entire theory. For example, Boer assumes that electrons can only have quantum energy levels and tracks, but why? Why must electrons be quantum? What is its theoretical basis? He said nothing about it. Of course, the harsh empirical will argue that electrons are quantum because experiments have observed that they are quantum and do not need any other reason. However, in any case, if the basic public settings of a theory are uncomfortable, the prospect of this theory will be less optimistic. Scientists undoubtedly think of the fifth Public Building of Euclidean in their attitude towards bord's quantum hypothesis (this principle says that only a straight line can be parallel to a known straight line at a point beyond the line. People later proved that this principle was not very reliable ). Undoubtedly, it is better to derive from some more basic truths. These more basic truths should become the cornerstone of the entire theory, not just the gorgeous decoration.

Later, when commenting on Boer's theory, the historian always used words such as "semi-classic semi-quantum" or "old bottled wine. It is like a face-changing master. When electrons run around a single track, it shows a face of classical mechanics. Once the track changes, it immediately changes to a quantum. Despite the support of superb techniques and corresponding principles, such dual-view practices are still under question. However, these issues are not critical yet. The key is that after winning a series of major victories, the Boer army finally found itself at the end of the storm, with some solid bastion hosts, in any case, it cannot be attacked.

For example, we all know the problem of atomic spectral split. Even with the efforts of Suo mafi and others, The Boer model explains the seiman effect under the magnetic field and the stark effect under the electrical field. However, constant changes in nature are a headache. Scientists soon discovered a complex split in the weak magnetic field of the spectral line, known as the "abnormal Selman effect ". This phenomenon requires the introduction of a quantum number of 1/2, and Borer's theory is helpless, with a sigh. This problem has plagued many scientists, making them easy to understand. It is said that during a visit to the home of bord, Bally said hello to Mrs. bord and complained angrily: "Of course I am not good! I can't understand the abnormal Seman effect !" This problem will be solved only after prob proposes its incompatible principle.

In addition, borl's theory was frustrated to find that his power was limited to an atomic model with only one electron. The statement given by the hydrogen atoms, the hydrogen atoms, or the ionization helium atoms is convincing. But for ordinary helium atoms that only have two exclusive electrons, it is powerless. Even for an electronic atom, what we can say is just the frequency of the spectral line. For the intensity, width, or polarization of the spectral line, we can only shrugged, sorry with his tongue accent.

On the battlefield of hydrogen molecules, the borer theory is also defeated.

In order to solve all these difficulties, bol, land (LANDE), bubble, Kramers and others have made a lot of efforts and introduced new assumptions, A new model has been created, and some of them even violate the theory of BOL and somafei. In the 1923 s, even though the theory of the bleak business was barely able to solve the problem, it was widely recognized by people that it was already like a robe filled with patches, A fundamental change is needed. The energetic young people of Göttingen began to reject the patch-heavy system and hoped to seek a more powerful and perfect theory, so as to rooted quantum thoughts in physics in essence, to end a stranger's life as it is now.

The decline of the Boolean system is as fast as its prosperity. More and more people are paying attention to the atomic world and making more experimental observations. Every day, people can get new information, stimulate their enthusiasm, and reveal the face of this mysterious kingdom. In Copenhagen and Göttingen, the physics talents talked about the nucleus, electronics, and quantum with great enthusiasm. The pages filled with the manuscripts of formulas and letters carried inspiration and creativity, intertwined into a prelude to the arrival of a big age. Qingshan cannot cover it. After all, the East flow will go. The pace of the times has been so fast that the lesser atom is finally unable to cope with the problem. It has exited from the stage of history and disappeared into the dark, leaving only one name to repeat us all the time.

If we regard the pioneering work of Werner Heisenberg and Erwin schroinger between 1925 and 1926 as the final life of the bord system, this theory has been booming for about 13 years. It allows people to see the great significance of quantum in the physical world, and uses its power for the first time to unveil the mysteries inside the atom. However, as we have seen, the bord revolution is an incomplete revolution, and quantum assumptions do not have a fundamental position in his system, it seems to be only a vassal to reconcile the contradiction between classic theory and reality. Boer's theory cannot explain why electrons have discrete energy levels and quantum behaviors, but they only know what they mean. Boder adopted a compromise line between quantum theory and classical theory, which made his atom always come with a half-new color and eventually collapsed due to insurmountable difficulties. Like a shining firestar, the rail atom of bord emits such a strong light, but passes through the night sky in a twinkling of an eye, and then falls into the darkness and chaos. It was so hasty that people were too late to close their clothes and make some beautiful wishes.

However, its great significance does not fade because of its short life. It mined the power of quantum and paved the way for future pioneers. It is the beginning and the end of the journey, which has effectively promoted the pace of physics. The Boolean model is still quite similar, and some of its ideas are still used for reference and learning. Although the atomic image it depicts is outdated, it is so vivid and vivid that it is still a standard style in the hearts of the masses and even represents the image of science. For example, we should be able to recall that, until the end of 1980s, the figure representing "science" was everywhere on the streets of China: three electrons run around the nucleus along an elliptical orbit. This pattern finally disappeared in 1990s, and someone finally realized the problem.

There are also contradictions between randomness and certainty in the borer system. In theory, it is impossible to determine when and where an electronic automatically jumps. It is more like a random process. On February 23, 1919, at the invitation of plank, he visited post-war Berlin. Where he was warmly received by Mr. purke and Einstein, the three giants of quantum mechanics discussed several physical issues. Boer believes that the transition of electrons between orbit seems unpredictable and a spontaneous random process. At least theoretically, it is impossible to calculate the specific transition conditions of an electron. Einstein shook his head and thought that any physical process was deterministic and predictable. This has already laid the seeds of a long debate between the two.

Of course, our honorable Mr. Nils Boer will not leave the physical stage because of the collapse of the old quantum theory. On the contrary, his wonderful stories have just begun. He had to fight on the physical front line for a long time until he died. In September 1921, borl's Research Institute in Copenhagen was finally completed, and 36-Year-Old borl became the director of the Institute. His personality charm soon attracted talented young people from all over the world like a magnetic field, and soon turned it into an academic center across Europe. Georg vonhevesy, Otto Frisch, Pauli, heesburg, mort (Nevill Mott), rando (levd. Landau), gumov (George gamov )...... People are here to fully feel the free atmosphere and the care of bo'er, and form a passionate, energetic, optimistic and enterprising academic spirit, that is, the "Copenhagen spirit" praised by future generations ". In Denmark, the projectile country, there is a holy land in the eyes of the physics field, which will profoundly influence the future of quantum mechanics, as well as our fundamental world outlook and way of thinking.

Thu

"Electronics are actually a wave !" This explosive news soon spread across volatility and the respective camps of both parties. Just now, in the battle of Compton, the fluctuating party was so arrogant that they could finally laugh at the enemy particles. Volatility daily published an editorial announcing that he had achieved a decisive victory. "The rebel forces of micro particles will eventually encounter the shameful ending they deserve-the end of the electronics is evidence ." In the eyes of fluctuations, the fight back of photon suddenly becomes worthless. Even the eldest brother of electronics is done, afraid of small photon?

However, this time, the fluctuating optimism was not too wishful thinking, and it was too early to be happy. Public opinion tools on particles are not idle. the reporter of "particle News" interviewed debroyi. As a result, debroyi said that today's radiation physics is divided into particles and waves, these two ideas should be unified in some way, rather than always sharp opposition-this is not conducive to the development prospects of theory. For a particle, the proposal of peace is naturally unacceptable, but at least what makes it happy is that debroyi is not explicitly biased towards the fluctuating side. Particle technicians immediately launched a counterattack. Whether the light is a particle or a wave is still unclear, who dared to assert that the electron is a wave? Let's take a look at the performance of electronics in the Wilson Cloud Room.

Wilson Cloud Room is an instrument invented by British scientist C. T. R. Wilson in 1911. When water vapor passes through dust or ions, it will condense into a collection of water beads centered on them, thus forming a clear and identifiable track in the passage of particles, it is like the white fog behind a jet plane in the sky. Using the Wilson cloud room, we can study the collision between electrons and other particles. As a result, their performance fully complies with the laws of classical particles. In the past, this may be a matter of course, but now this evidence is valuable for particle army. Wilson shared the Nobel Prize in 1927 for the invention of the Cloud Room. If the winners of the 1937 s WTI and Thomson marked a fluctuating carnival, the 10-year Nobel prize presentation will undoubtedly be a microparticle ceremony. However, at that time, there were subtle changes that were unexpected. Of course, this is all the background.

The instrument that captures the electronic position has long been available, and the electronic on the sensor screen always inspires a small bright spot. Hey, the generals of the particles said, how can we explain the fluctuations? Even if it is composed of electrons as a diffraction pattern, it is accumulated as a single highlight. If the electron is a wave, then theoretically a single electron can constitute the entire pattern, but it is very gloomy. However, this is obviously not the case. A single electron can only constitute a single highlight. Only the appearance of a large number of electrons gradually shows a diffraction pattern.

Particles fight back and do not talk about him. What's worse is that both particles and fluctuations have not been able to reap substantial benefits in the "dbroyi incident. The ridicule of volatility is sharp, and it is still helpless to the photoelectric effect, the computation effect and so on, and the particles still cannot explain the double slit interference. The two sides soon discovered that no one was able to make a step forward, but the battlefield was expanded. Electronics are now being dragged into the war of light nature, which makes the war fully escalated. The question now is no longer just whether the light is a particle or a wave. The question is whether the electron is a particle or a wave, or whether you and I are particles or waves, whether the whole material world is a particle or a wave.

In fact, this wave of electronic attacks only inspire the hearts of the particle. Now, photon, electron, alpha particle, and more basic particles have all decided to join together and work side by side for the holy battle of the "big particle kingdom. This wave-grain war is far beyond the scope of light. Today, the entire physical system is in this debate, forming a world war. Borer tried to mediate the two troops in 1924. He and Kramers and Slater published a theory called BSK theory ), he tried to explain the energy conversion from the perspective of waves and particles at the same time, but the two sides were very jealous. This mediation became a complete diplomatic failure and was soon rejected by the experiment. The war is raging, burning every inch of the Land of physics, and it will burn its future to the fullest extent.

Physics has reached a crossroads. It is confused and confused, and does not know where to go. The classic glory of the past has become a broken block, and all returns are cut off. Today's sky is overcast with clouds, and there is no sunshine, and a shadow is cast on the earth. People walk along the way under the guidance of the quantum genie, such as walking along the way on the vagina, wonderful, but now suddenly found that they are already in the depths of the white clouds, wandering and do not know the way back. Looking at it, it's full of fog, and it's hard to tell people what's going on. Although the building built by borl still looks like a treasure, engineers who know a little bit about it know that it has been blurred, broken, and broken, but they are still struggling to support it. What's more, this building also relies on the flyover of the corresponding principle and is attached to the old building of Maxwell. This will teach people not to have any hope for its future. On the other side, particles and fluctuations beat the sky, and no one can help anyone. The long-term war has brought the foundation of physics to the verge of collapse, and it does not even know what it is built on.

However, we do not have to worry too much about a pessimistic sentiment. Before the dawn of the great age, we always need to experience such deep darkness, which is the pain before the birth of a great theory. When the wind rises and blows away all the haze, people will be pleasantly surprised to find that they have already stood on the top of the high mountain and looked at the sky.

The person who led us through the fog later recalled: "From 1924 to 1925, although we entered a thick cloud field in atomic physics, we can see a little bit of light from it, and looks forward to an exciting future."

This is a young man from Germany, Werner Heisenberg ).

At the end of the second chapter of this history, we already know that, born in 1901 at Würzburg, his father became a famous Greek professor. When I was nine years old, Mr. Smith moved his family to Munich, where his grandfather was principal at a school called Maximilians gymnasium, heenburg naturally entered this school. Although he belongs to the "master", Mr. Smith apparently did not have to rely on this relationship to achieve his achievements. His genius soon began to surprise him, especially in mathematics and physics, but he also showed strong interest in religion, literature, and philosophy. Such versatility indicates that he will not only become an epoch physicist in the future, but also become an important philosopher.

In 1919, heesburg participated in the suppression of military operations by the German Soviet Republic. At that time, of course, he was just a big boy and regarded it as a fun thing. For him, it is more serious to choose a path in college. When he entered the University of Munich, this kind of choice was very realistic: He followed Ferdinand vonlindemann, a famous mathematician, to learn number theory, or follow suo's end to learn physics? Heenburg finally chose the latter and took the first step of a scientific giant.

In February 1922, borl was invited to gotinggen for an academic visit, which caused a sensation. Later, it was called the "bo'er festival" of gotinggen ". Heenburg also rushed to gotinggen to listen to his speech. In the third grade, he raised some academic objections to bord, which impressed him. In fact, perhaps the greatest benefit of his trip was the chance of encountering a young man with two days of no limit, both heenburg and Buri. Both of them will go to Copenhagen later, and work with him for a period of time in the R & D center of bord.

In 1925, heenburg-who is now a doctor-has grown into a vibrant and sophisticated physicist. His experience in Munich, gotinggen, and Copenhagen allowed him to master several of the best physics masters at that time. According to his own statement, he learned optimism from suo maifo, learned mathematics from Bonn, Frank and Hilbert in Gottingen, and from Bol, he learned Physics (it seems that Suo has no face, huh, huh ).

Now, it's time for heenburg to play. The sky of physics will eventually become misty, and we will be dazzled by the shining stars. There are several very bright stars in the sky. Their glow lights up the night sky and forms the most magnificent constellation. You should be able to recognize one of them without any effort. It is called Verna heenburg. As one of the founders of quantum mechanics, this name will always be engraved in time and space and history.

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Gossip after meals: A misunderstood famous saying

This gossip has nothing to do with today's text, but since we have discussed Newton over the past few days, we may wish to reveal some historical facts about Newton.

Newton's most well-known famous saying goes like this: "If I look farther, that's because I'm standing on the shoulders of giants "(if I haveseen further it is by standing on ye shoulders of giants ). This sentence is often used to admire Newton's humility, but historically it seems that there is no reason to understand it as humility.

First, this sentence is not original. As early as the 12th century, Bernard of Chartres, the principal of the famous French Sandel school, said: "nos essequasi Nanos gigantium humeris insidientes ". It means that we all look like a dwarf sitting on the shoulders of giants. This sentence can still be found in the windows of the famous Gothic cathedral in the city of Sandel. At least 20 or 30 people have said similar things before Newton since Bernard.

Newton said this in a letter to Hu KE in 1676. At that time, he had a dark quarrel with Hu ke on the issue of light, and the debate had lasted for many years (see our history ). In this letter, Newton thought that Hu ke saw his (Newton himself) ability too high, and then the famous saying: "If I can see farther, that's because I'm standing on the shoulders of giants ".

There are only two meanings: If Newton refers to Hulk, it is a very obvious compromise: I have not copied your ideas, I just continue to develop on the basis of your work-this is a little higher than you think. Newton wanted to use this method to euphemistically calm Hu Ke's anger. However, if you want to be generous or humble, it seems very difficult to talk about it. Newton hated Hu ke for his life. Even a few decades later, he still could not mention this name calmly. This sentence is at most a diplomatic term trying to settle down. Another possibility is that giants do not mean hookk, so it is even more obvious: even if my work is not entirely my own, it is also standing on the shoulders of the giants of the predecessors-without you.

More historians believe that this sentence is a malicious manipulation and irony-hu Ke is short, and "Giant" seems to imply bad intentions. Those who hold this view even include the famous Stephen Hawking, who now sat in the seat of Professor Newton lucasa.

Newton also has a famous saying that he is a child by the sea. He picked up shells to play, but he hasn't found the sea of truth yet. This sentence is not his original. It can be traced back to Joseph Spence at the earliest. But Newton is most likely to reference it from John Hamilton's "Paradise complex" (Newton has a portfolio of Hamilton ). This is clearly a well-prepared remark. Newton himself has never seen the sea, not to mention walking on the beach. The greatest river he has ever seen in his life is the river banks. It is hard to imagine how the sea's image can jump out of his mind naturally.

I have nothing to say about it. I just want to say that history is sometimes given too many aperture and dizzy wheels, but the truth is still the responsibility of everyone, no matter what the truth is. At the same time, this does not affect Newton's scientific achievements-he is the greatest scientist in history.

3.

The new revolution is brewing when the engineers are still struggling to extricate themselves in the quagmire. This time, the revolutionaries did not come from a poor proletarian mass, but from a distinguished aristocratic family. Prince louisvictor Pierre Raymond de Broglie will add a new glow to his glorious family history.

The title of the prince is not what we usually understand, but the son of the king. In fact, in the title list, its ranking is not high, and it does not seem to be in the English world. Generally speaking, it is slightly lower than Viscount, and slightly higher than Baron. However, this is only because Louis is not the boss at home, and his family has a long history. Many generals, marshals, and Ministers appeared among his ancestors, I once faithfully served Louis 14th, Louis 15th, and Louis 16th. They participated in the Polish throne inheritance war (1733-1735), the Austrian throne inheritance war (1740-1748), the seven-year war (1756-1763), and the United States Independent War (1775-1782) the French Revolution (1789) and the February Revolution (1848) were accepted by Francis II.
II. The Holy emperor of the Roman Empire, who later retired to the throne as Austrian Emperor Francis I) and Louis Phillips, the French King, Duke of arms, the family inherits the title of the highest hereditary identity: Duke (French Duc, equivalent to English duke ). His brother, Maurice debroglie, is the sixth generation of Duke debroy. In 1960, when Morris died, Louis finally inherited the title from his brother and became the seventh Duc de Broglie.

Before that, of course, Louis was still carrying the prince's Jue. Little Louis showed a strong interest in history. His grandfather, jacquesvictor Albert and Duc de Broglie, was not only a politician but also a French Prime Minister in-years, at the same time, he is also an outstanding historian, especially for the late Rome history. He has written the book Histoire del église et de l' empire Romain ). With his grandfather, Louis decided to go to the University of Paris to study history. At the age of 18 (1910), he graduated from college, but did not do more research in the field of history, because his interest has shifted strongly to physics. His brother, Morris debroy (Duke of the sixth generation debroy), is a famous Ray physicist. Louis followed his brother to attend the Brussels physics conference in 1911, his passion for science was fully inspired and determined to dedicate his life to this exciting career.

Shortly after the physical switch, the First World War broke out. Debroyi enlisted and was assigned a radio technician. He is much luckier than poor Henry mosiri, and can continue to study his physics in College after the war. His doctoral advisor is the famous Paul Langevin ).

Here, I need to stop making a statement. Although we have reviewed some exciting revolutions and new ideas that open your eyes (at least I hope so), our history tells us that, in general, still wandering in the classic World. According to my impression, our topic has not been beyond the scope of physics and College Entrance Examination in middle school. For ordinary readers, the only thing that is a little unfamiliar may be quantum jumping thoughts. Accepting this idea is not a very difficult and reluctant task.

However, after that, we will enter a completely fantastic world. This world is very different from what we usually recognize. In this new world, all images and concepts seem crazy and irrational, more like the wonders of Alice's dream, rather than the solid land. Many nouns are so strange that they can grasp their true meaning only by using mathematical tools. Of course, I will try to express them in the simplest language, but it is still necessary to remind you to be prepared. For the sake of convenience, I will try my best to present one thing completely and then switch the topic. Although in history, all of this is overwhelming, and they are mixed together, surging, so that people can not tell a clue. In the subsequent descriptions, we may always jump between years. Readers who want to grasp the sense of time should pay attention to the exact age.

We are already at the forefront of a great moment. The new quantum mechanics will soon be created. This time, its power will be fully applied, so as to put all old things, including the half-old systems of bord, all are wiped out. It will soon unveil the curtain of a new world, which, even a slight glance inside, will make us dizzy and shake our hearts. However, since we have already stood here, we can only move forward without hesitation. So come with me, and countless exciting things are waiting for us.

Our topic is back to debroyi. He has been thinking about how to naturally introduce the concept of a cycle in the bord Atomic Model to conform to the observed reality. Originally, this condition was imposed on the electronic quantum mode. Although the electronic was obedient, it always felt a little unwilling under the rigid rules of boder. Debroyi thought it was time to release the electronics and let them take the lead.

How can we give electronics a basic nature so that they can consciously show various periods and Quantizing phenomena? Debroe thought of Einstein and his theory of relativity. He began to deduce that, according to Einstein's famous equation, if the electron has mass m, it must have an inner energy E = mc ^ 2. Well, let's repeat the basic quantum equation that I have said is very useful, E = H ν. That is to say, electrons will have an inner frequency corresponding to this energy. The calculation of this frequency is very simple, because mc ^ 2 = E = H ν, so ν = mc ^ 2/h.

Okay. Electronics have an internal frequency. So what is the frequency? It is a period of vibration. Then we come to the conclusion that something inside the electronics is vibrating. What is vibrating? Debroyi started his computation with the help of relativity, and found that ...... When the electron advances at a speed of v0, it must be accompanied by a wave with a speed of C ^ 2/V0 ......

Oh, you have not heard the error. When the electronics are advancing, there is always a wave. Careful readers may ask questions, because they find that the speed of this wave C ^ 2/V0 will be much faster than the speed of light, but this is not a problem. Debroyi proves that such waves do not carry actual energy and information, and therefore do not violate the theory of relativity. Einstein only said that there is no energy signal that can pass faster than the speed of light, and he is blind to the waves of Dibo.

Debroitalian calls this kind of wave "phase wave". To commemorate him, future generations also call it "debroitalian wave ". It is easy to calculate the wavelength of this wave. simply divide the obtained speed by its frequency, we will get: λ = (C ^ 2/V0) /(mc ^ 2/h) = H/mv0. This is called the debroge wavelength formula.

However, wait, we seem to have never looked back. We are talking about a "wave "! But we are talking about electronics first. How come a wave of electrons suddenly emerge? Where did it come from? I hope that you will not forget our poor wave and particle army. They have been fighting hard and deadlocked while the borer atom is flourishing and declining. In 1923, prior to finding his phase wave, debroy explained the compton effect with photon, and led the particles to reverse the attack shortly after. Unlucky particles had to give up all-round attacks because they suddenly found that, in the rear of the electronics, there were fluctuations in the details! In addition, they can't catch up.

Electronics are actually a wave! This is incredible. In front of the avant-garde and rebellious young men, the Honorable Mr. purke could only shake his head and sigh, but he could not even say anything. If there was only one person in the world who supported debroge at that time, he would be Einstein. Dibo's mentor, Lang zhiwan, had no choice but to give his disciples his papers to Einstein for review in order to save the good wishes of the lost youth. Who expected Einstein to give a high rating immediately, said debroyi "opened a corner of the screen ". The entire physics community was surprised to hear Einstein's comments, and began to fully focus on the work of debroge.

Evidence. We need evidence. All people say in unison. If the electron is a wave, we can see that it is a wave. We will show you its diffraction experiment and put the interference pattern in front of our eyes. Debromo politely replied: Yes, gentlemen, I will show you the evidence. I predict that when an electron passes through a small hole, it will produce an observed diffraction phenomenon like a light wave.

In November April 1925, at the Bell Telephone lab in New York, USA, a electronics experiment was conducted by C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer. We don't know what the purpose of this experiment is, but it involves the use of an electronic stream to target a piece of nickel ). The experiment requires that the surface of the metal be absolutely pure, so David and the last put the metal in a vacuum container to ensure that no magazine is mixed into it.

Unfortunately, an accident occurred. The vacuum container exploded for some reason, and the air ran in and quickly oxidized the nickel surface. David and James are very frustrated, but they didn't give up on the experiment. They decided to repurify the metal surface and start the experiment from scratch. At that time, the good way to remove oxide layer was to heat the metal, which was exactly what davyson did.

The two did not know that, just as Athena secretly boosted the ship of heroes of Arge, goddess of luck was standing behind them at this time. The metal in the container changes unexpectedly at high temperatures: Originally it was composed of many small crystals, and after heating, the whole nickel was integrated into a large crystal. Although on the surface, the two are not very different, the internal change is enough to change the history of physics.

When the electrons pass through the nickel block, Davison and Ge are stunned and unable to speak for a long time. They saw an unfamiliar scene: X-ray diffraction pattern! However, there is no X-ray, only electrons, and people finally find that under some circumstances, electrons exhibit purely fluctuating properties like X-rays. Electronics is undoubtedly a wave.

More evidence is coming soon. In 1927, G. P. Thomson, son of j.j. Thomson, further demonstrated electronic volatility in Cambridge through experiments. He uses experimental data to calculate the electronic behavior, which is perfectly consistent with what debroy predicts.

It is destined that both David and Tom will share the Nobel Prize in 1937, and debroge will be honored eight years before them. Interestingly, the father of GP Thomson, JJ Thomson, won the Nobel Prize for discovering the particle of electrons, But he won the same honor for proving that electrons are waves. Sometimes history is very interesting.

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Gossip after dinner: Father and Son Nobel

As the saying goes, when there are no dogs, the descendants of big scientists will often achieve remarkable achievements as their predecessors. JJ Thomson's son, GP Thomson, overturned his father's idea that electrons are particles, proving that electronic volatility also won the Nobel Prize. It seems that such a world-class attack science is not unique.

Mrs Curie and her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the Nobel Prize in 1903 (Mrs Curie received another Chemistry Prize in 1911 ). Their daughter, Irene Joliot-Curie, shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with her husband in 1935. Another son-in-law of Mrs Curie, American diplomat Henry R. Labouisse, received the Nobel Peace Prize on behalf of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) in 1965.

In 1915, William henrybrand William amlawrence brags shared the Nobel Physics Prize for their outstanding contributions to the crystal structure using X-rays.

We won the Nobel Physics Award in 1922 for Nils Boer, a famous company. His youngest son, Aage Bohr, won awards in the same field in 1975.

Karl siegbahn and Kai siegbahn won the Nobel Physics Prize in 1924 and 1981 respectively.

What if my dad is a big scientist? But I'm afraid it's still like the current wave, seeking for a free life, huh, huh.